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Resilience through Transitions (EE)
This paper has been prepared for Health Canada and the Health & Learning Knowledge Centre of the Canadian Council on Learning to facilitate discussion of practical applications of resilience-based research in schools and several other settings. Readers are invited to comment on the paper by using the "Start a thread" feature found at the bottom of this page. If you would like to discuss the concept of resilience more generally, please use the "Discussions" feature found in the navigation bar for this web site at the top of the page. Thanks in advance for your participation.
This summary discusses one behavioural theory that underpins school health promotion, safety, social development and other similar programs. The summary is one of several that are being developed within this wiki-based web site. Please see our Call for Writers/Contributors/Sponsors on Behaviour Theories for a full listing of this series of summaries.
Resiliency and Transitions: Early Adolescents and the Transition to High School
Editor: Doug McCall (dmccall@internationalschoolhealth.org)
Contributors:
First Draft Posted: March 6, 2009
Most Recent Major Update: January 20-2010
Permissions: This summary is "locked". Comments can be made anonymously by clicking on the "thread" button at the bottom of the page or by using the Discussion feature in the top navigation bar.
Related Summaries in this Web Site: Resilience & Schools (GT) Resilience as an Emerging Concept (EE), Fostering Resilience through Transitions (EE), Fostering Resilience through Family Programs (EE), After School Programs, Healthy Development & Resilience (HS) Resilience & School Programs (HS) and Resilience & Schools (BT)
Webinars from this Paper: Use your computer to see and hear a recorded Webinar presented by the author of this paper by using the following link:Promoting Resiliency through Youth Transitions
In Canada there are a growing number of children with risk factors that compromise both their present and future adjustment (Schonert-Reichl, 2000). Recent data available from Statistics Canada and the Campaign 2000 Report Card on Child Poverty indicate that almost 1 in 6, or 17.7% of all children in Canada live below the poverty line (Statistics Canada, Income in Canada 2004). This represents 1.1 million Canadian children living in poverty as of 2001. Epidemiological estimates indicate that approximately 20% of children and youth experience significant mental health problems that warrant social services, yet many remain undiagnosed (Romano, Tremblay, Vitaro, Zoccolillo, & Pagani, 2001). School-based studies of children who suffer from serious emotional disorders reveals that more than 70% of those who need mental health services do not receive them (Estrada & Pinsof, 1995; Stanley, 2002). In a recent Canadian report, Waddell and Shepherd (2002) used large scale studies conducted in English-speaking,
westernized countries to estimate the prevalence rates for various mental health problems in children and youth, aged 4-17. Overall, they estimated that at least 14% experience some type of mental health disorder (well over 800,000 children across Canada). The
most common disorders included anxiety disorders, estimated to affect 6.4% of the population, conduct disorders and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, estimated to affect 4.2% and 4.8%, respectively, and depression, estimated to affect 3.5% of the
population.
For many, these recent research findings generate many more questions than answers. How can we help children cope with the many risks with which they are faced? What can we do to help them be successful in both their present and future adjustment?
In this paper, we focus specifically on one stressful time in the lives of young adolescents that has been associated with heightened risk and vulnerability -- the transition from elementary school to high school. A plethora of research has identified this transitional time in the life span as one in which young people are confronted with a myriad of new stressors with which they must cope – both related to context (e.g., larger school, increased academic demands) and developmental changes (e.g., cognitive development,
changing peer and parent relationships). We argue that the field of “resiliency” has much to offer for understanding the factors that can protect young adolescents as they make this transition and lead them on a road toward success. In pursuing this objective, we begin with a definition of resiliency and follow with identifying the importance of taking a resiliency perspective when considering transitions. Next, we provide a brief description of early adolescence as a transitional phase in development and then we go on to
characterize the high school as a context that can either promote risk or resiliency. We then provide examples of several programs and approaches that have been developed to assist early adolescents with the transition to high school. We end with a delineation of
suggested guidelines and recommended next steps for helping young people successfully traverse the path from elementary school to high school.
What is Resiliency?
How do some children and adolescents succeed when their development is threatened by a myriad of problems such as poverty, neglect, maltreatment, violence, isolation, war, or exposure to racism, and discrimination? How do we explain this phenomenon of “resilience” – children and adolescents demonstrating success and competence in the face of adversity? What are the ways that parents, educators, and other adults can foster resiliency in children and youth? Over the last several decades numerous
reports have emerged describing the experiences and outcomes of children and youth experiencing a range of problems that render them “at risk’ for developing into healthy and productive adults. What research now tells us is that there are a subset of children
and youth who experience success despite all of the obstacles to which they are exposed. These children have been identified as “resilient” – that is, they demonstrate positive adaptation despite adversity.
Resiliency generally refers to those factors and processes that interrupt the downward trajectory from risk and problem behaviours and result in adaptive outcomes even in the presence of adversity (Zimmerman & Arunkumar, 1994). Resiliency can be conceptualized as “a process of, or a capacity for, or the outcome of successful adaptation despite challenging and threatening circumstances” (Garmezy & Masten, 1991). Emerging research tells us that there are factors both internal to the individual
(e.g., self confidence, intelligence, hope and optimism) and to the external environment (e.g., one significant adult, involvement in extracurricular activities, school and community support) that promote resiliency, and that these factors do not operate in
isolation but instead interact with one another to help children and adolescents avoid negative consequences. Hence, resiliency research then offers a promising framework for efforts to reduce and prevent risk factors by focusing on examining the ways in which
individuals, despite the presence of risk factors, develop in healthy ways -- are resilient and “beat the odds.” The resilience concept has helped frame the study of child development using a strengths-based model rather than a deficit and problem-oriented
approach. Moreover, the popularity of the resiliency construct is due, in part, to the increased recognition that the key to prevention and intervention efforts is the identification of factors that lead to success rather than to just those factors that reduce
risk. Indeed, a lot can be learned from adopting a resiliency perspective to inform preventive approaches that support transitions.
Resiliency and Transitions
Transitional periods have been defined as phases in the life span in which developmental challenges and demands are intensified, and can be considered phases as heightened vulnerability or risk. In a child’s life, transitions can include birth of a sibling, parental separation, puberty, and the transition from elementary or middle school to high school. This latter “transition” is the topic that we will address in this paper.
Transitional periods have also been characterized as “transition-linked turning points” in development; events that have the potential to alter behaviour, affect, cognition, or context and can result in lifelong changes (Graber & Brooks-Gunn, 1998; Pickles & Rutter, 1991). In this vein, transitions should not only be thought as “risk promoting” or “vulnerability inducing” times in child development – transitions may also be thought as “windows of opportunity” – times in the life cycle in which positive development can be cultivated and fostered through opportunities provided to the individual in his/her environment that “promote” success, and serve as “protective”
factors that move the individual onward and upward to a pathway filled with competence.
Early Adolescence: A Transitional Phase in Development
As individuals traverse the path from childhood to adolescence, they encounter many roadblocks that at times seem insurmountable. The pathway is a particularly circuitous and challenging route for early adolescents due to the fact that more changes occur for individuals during this relatively short time-span in development than in any of other time in the life-cycle (with the exception of infancy). Indeed, the early adolescent years are characterized by dramatic physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes,
including an increasing focus on the peer group and changes in the nature of parent-child and adult-child relationships.
Early adolescence is the term commonly used to refer to children between the ages of 10 and 14 years. Although the identification of early adolescence is less demarcated than the periods of infancy, these years universally mark a distinctive period in which individuals undergo important developmental changes and which critical developmental transitions occur. Indeed, although an abundance of research has demonstrated that the early years are critical years for healthy child development, what happens during the early adolescent years is also critical with long lasting effects (Hertzman & Power, 2006). For instance, during early adolescence children gain entry to new settings, such as middle schools and high schools, that lead them to encounter pressures that present them with new developmental challenges – namely, an entire new world of expectations for their success (Eccles et al., 1993). Along this line, there is increasing influence of out-of-home environments on children’s developmental pathways (Bianchi et al., 1997). Indeed, children at this age, although still heavily influenced by the family milieu, are increasingly engaged in other environments and may be influenced by teachers, school environments, and peer groups.
The High School Context: A Context of Risk or Resiliency?
Is the high school a context in which risk or resiliency is promoted? In 1993, it was estimated that as many as 30% of 15- to 20-year-olds did not complete secondary school (Statistics Canada, 1993). Drop out rates have steadily decreased over the past
decade (Bowlby & McMullen, 2002), with nearly 17% of 20-24-year-olds neither attending school nor having a high school diploma. By 2004-2005, overall drop out rates had fallen to 9.8% but remained almost twice as high (16.4%) among youth from small
towns and rural communities as compared to youth from larger metropolitan areas (Bowlby, 2005). We now know that it is children who experience significant peer rejection and social difficulties during the elementary school years that are at risk for
school drop out at the secondary level (see Hymel, Comfort, Schonert-Reichl, & McDougall, 1996).
The potent role of the school context in promoting risk has received recent research attention. Research has consistently demonstrated that the early adolescent years mark the beginning of a downward spiral that leads some adolescent to experience school failure and subsequently dropout. Research conducted by Eccles and her colleagues (1993) suggests that the ethos of the secondary school itself may, in fact, be causing many of the motivational and academic problems that emerge in early adolescence.
Drawing from Hunt’s (1975) person-environment fit theory, Eccles et al. (1993) argue that the increases in behavioral problems and decreases in motivation typically seen in early adolescence are a result of developmentally inappropriate educational environments
for students, that is a consequence of a developmental stage-environment mismatch. For instance, adolescence is characterized by an emerging need for autonomy and self-determination. Midgley and Feldlaufer (1987) found, however, that grade 7 students and
their teachers in their first year of junior high school reported fewer classroom decision-making opportunities than did these same students and their teachers one year earlier in grade 6.Throughout the literature it is recognized that a child’s and adolescent’s
functioning in school is inextricably linked with his or her sense of belonging and connection to the school environment and his or her relationships with peers and teachers within it. Research by Roeser, Midgely, and Urdan (1996) demonstrates this point. In a
study examining the association between early adolescents’ perceptions of the school environment and their psychological and behavioral functioning, Roeser et al. conclude that “school environments that are perceived as supportive, caring, and as emphasizing
individual effort and improvement are related to a more adaptive pattern of cognition, affect, and behavior than are . . . school environments that are perceived as less supportive and emphasizing relative ability and competition” (p. 417). Perceiving
positive and strong connections to school have implications for current school functioning as well as future educational plans. For instance, in a large scale study examining the health status and psychological wellbeing of 25,838 adolescents grades 7
to 12 in British Columbia (McCreary, 1999), adolescents identified as having a high level of school connectedness were more likely to report lower levels of truancy and plans for post-secondary education than those adolescents identified as having low levels of school
connectedness. Taken together, these studies highlight the significance of school belonging in determining students’ present and future educational functioning.
Programs that Can Promote Resiliency During the Transition to High School
The transition from elementary to high school then offers an opportunity for educators to implement programs and practices that promote positive development and protect adolescents against many of the risk factors that may emerge during the onset of
the second decade of life. For adolescents deemed as “at risk” because of problems within their environment or other factors (e.g., peer rejection, school failure), as well as for other adolescents who may be experiencing a “bump in the road” because of the stress
pile-up (e.g., biological changes, cognitive development, changes in peer and family relationships) that is part and parcel of the early adolescent transition, the secondary school environment does not have to be one that is inherently risk promoting. The transition to secondary school can be an opportunity to redirect a developmental trajectory away from risk and toward success.
Recognition that transitioning from elementary to secondary school is a critical developmental milestone has led to the development of school-based programs designed to help young adolescents prepare for the number of varied and evolving demands present during this schooling transition. Such programs aim to build and foster children’s assets and protective factors, thus strengthening young adolescents’ resilience. Programs with this purpose in mind vary from small efforts developed within individual schools, to more systemic, well-researched evidence-based practices implemented nationally and internationally. Four illustrative examples of such programs include the School Transitional Environmental Program (STEP), the Rite of Passage Experience (ROPE), the Theatre Templeton Entering Big Productions (TTEBP), and the BASE program at Vancouver Technical Secondary School.
School Transitional Environmental Program (STEP)
STEP is a school organizational change initiative developed for adolescents aged twelve through eighteen. The program is based on the Transitional Life Events model, which theorizes that stressful life events such as making transitions between schools, places children at risk for maladaptive behaviour. Overarching goals of the program include decreasing student anonymity, increasing student accountability, and enhancing students’ abilities to learn school rules and exceptions.
Key Program Elements
Rite of Passage Experience® (ROPE®)
ROPE, developed by Dr. David Blumenkrantz at the Center for the Advancement of Youth, Family, and Community Services, has been delivered to over 100,000 youth and their families across the United States and Canada since its inception in 1981. ROPE
is a school and community-based initiative designed to provide children transitioning to middle school a rite of passage experience. ROPE’s 13-plus lessons per year provide a series of challenges that students have to meet individually and as a group; these lessons emphasize building group cohesion, trust and teamwork and decision-making. ROPE is a strengths-based approach with programmatic elements that aim to boost the 40 developmental assets proposed by the Search Institute.
Key Program Elements
There has been limited research on the ROPE program; however, one unpublished study evaluated 75 grade six students of unspecified ethnicity who received one school year of ROPE. Results at post-test revealed that students who participated in the program reported greater involvement with family compared to students in the comparison group (Hawkins, 1986). There was no follow-up to this study.
Theatre Templeton Entering Big Productions (TTEBP), Vancouver, Canada
The Theatre Templeton Entering Big Productions is a theatre and film program developed by staff and led by Jimmy Crescenzo at Templeton Secondary School in Vancouver, British Columbia. The program offers grade 7 students who have the option
to feed into Templeton the following year for grade 8, an opportunity to join secondary students in a film class. TTEBP is theoretically connected to Dr. Gordon Neufeld’s work, which is focused on attachment and the importance of supportive relationships. Guided
by these theoretical underpinnings, TTEBP has a strong mentorship component, in which, older grade 10 and 11 students work with the grade 7 students on two major projects focused on social responsibility and community service. In addition, a team of adults
including professionals from the community (e.g., set designers, drug and alcohol counsellors) work with the students on a major film project from November to February. The program is in its second year of implementation and has added a summer pilot program based on the same model.
Key Program Elements
To date, there have been no formal evaluations of TTEBP. However, anecdotal data are positive thus far. For example, school staff have noted that grade 7 TTEBP students made a smoother transition into secondary school and exhibited greater attachment and bonding to school the year following their participation in the program,
The BASE Program and Vancouver Technical Secondary School, Vancouver, Canada
The BASE program is a student-led initiative designed to address school safety and was created in 2002 at Vancouver Technical Secondary School in Vancouver, British Columbia. BASE is a mentorship program that aims to facilitate the transition from elementary school to secondary school for all Grade 8 students. A group of 40-50 grade 10 to 12 students is recruited to be trained as mentors and BASE leaders with each leader are then assigned to a grade 8 homeroom class. Along with facilitating the transition to secondary school, program goals include creating a safe and caring school community and building positive relationships between younger and older students. Grade 7 students are introduced to the BASE program via presentations in feeder elementary schools
Key Program Elements
To date, there have been no formal evaluations of the BASE program. Anecdotally, students who have participated in the BASE program have reported the following:
Common Program Elements
The following table illustrates some of the common key elements found in the STEP, ROPE, and TTEBP programs.
The Critical Role of Relationships
Seen here, it is clear all four programs (STEP, ROPE, TTEBP, and BASE) emphasize relationships as key program ingredients to assist students transitioning from elementary to secondary school. A review of the literature by Luthar (2006) across five decades of research on resilience among children and adults led to the conclusion that “Resilience rests, fundamentally on relationships.” Moreover, Luthar and Brown (2007) contend that: “It is quite clear that the single most deleterious environmental risk is the
sustained presence of neglect and abuse, and conversely, committed, loving relationships
have high protective potential” (p. 943).
Moreover, The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2004), Stated simply, relationships are the ‘active ingredient’ of the environment’s influence on healthy human development. They incorporate the qualities that best promote competence and well-being – individualized responsiveness, mutual action-andinteraction, and an emotional connection to another human being, be it a parent, peer, grandparent, aunt, uncle, neighbor, teacher, coach, or any other person who has an important impact on the child’s early development.
Clearly, the power of children’s and adolescents’ relationships with important adults transcends families and operates across the multiple contexts in which children and youth live – including schools and neighbourhoods (Scales & Gibbons, 1996). If we have
learned nothing else about preventing negative life outcomes among children and adolescents, we know that having a caring and supportive relationship with at least one adult is extremely important for healthy development and for promoting resilience, as
illustrated by the seminal work of Werner and Smith (1982). New research, however, is now showing that more than one significant adult can make an even greater difference in the lives of children and youth. In a recent large scale study funded by the United Way of the Lower Mainland of 1,266 Canadian children, ages 9 to 12, it was found that children who reported that they had at least two or more adults whom they felt were “important” to them in school, reported greater levels of optimism, happiness, school motivation, self
confidence, empathy, concern for others, and other positive attributes in contrast to those children reporting either none or one significant adult (Schonert-Reichl, 2007). Research has also demonstrated the benefits of significant adults relationships for children and youth in contexts outside of the school and within the context of community organizations, such as Boys and Girls Club and Big Brothers/Big Sisters (Tierney, Grossman & Resch, 1995), along with more informal networks in communities and neighbourhoods.
The Importance of School Context and School Belonging
The STEP, ROPE, TTEBP, and BASE programs also recognize the importance of building a strong sense of school belonging. Unfortunately, for many children and youth today, positive relationships with a caring adult or adults are neither readily available
within their immediate family nor in their surrounding communities. This reality creates a more compelling reason for schools to fulfill their mission “to educate students to be knowledgeable, responsible, socially skilled, healthy, caring, and contributing citizens”
(Greenberg, Weissberg, Utne O’Brien, Zins, Fredericks, Resnik, et al. 2003) and to create the kind of social environments where all students feel accepted, supported, and valued as contributing members of the school community and thus, ultimately, as members of our larger society.
The crucial point from the perspective of the promotion of resilience in children and adolescents is that schools must be places that foster students’ positive development not just in academics, but in the social, emotional, and moral aspects of their lives as
well. In short, schools must become health-promoting environments, where young people acquire the abilities, inclinations, motivation, and values to succeed in their lives.
How is it that so many youth exposed to adverse life circumstances manage to survive, or even thrive, and what can schools do to promote this? A variety of evidence converges on the importance of belonging as a critical component of doing well in life: that is, the feeling that one is a competent, contributing, and valued member of a prosocial group. This evidence comes from both basic research on effective schooling and evaluations of school-based intervention programs. Although not all of these studies have examined the same outcomes for youth, they collectively have examined effects on a wide range of contemporary social problems, and their findings consistently indicate that young people who attend schools where they feel accepted, competent, and valued are much less likely to become involved in problem behaviours.
One important piece of this evidence comes from an ongoing longitudinal study of a nationally representative sample of adolescents. This research has found that, along with positive relationships with one’s family, a sense of connectedness to school is the most significant protective factor for every problem behaviour examined, including alcohol and drug abuse, violence and delinquency, and early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy. Consistent with these findings, evaluations of a number of positive youth development programs for elementary schools have found long-term positive effects on students’ involvement in problem behaviours. One example is the Seattle Social Development Project, an elementary school intervention that has followed program and comparison children into early adulthood. This study found significant positive effects on drug use, delinquent behaviours, and precocious sexual activity, as well as improved academic attitudes and achievement. Another is the Child Development Project, which has been evaluated in a number of studies and has been found not only to promote children’s general positive development, but to have significant preventive effects on students’ involvement in problem behaviours at least throughout the middle school years.
Both of these programs have identified students’ feelings of belonging to school as a primary reason for their positive effects. The findings of these studies and related research clearly suggest that schools that focus on promoting the overall positive development of youth (i.e., character education) by creating caring and supportive environments where students feel that they belong also effectively prevent the involvement of their students in a variety of problem behaviours. But why should this be the case? As suggested above, the central issue is the importance of positive interpersonal relationships to human development.
Helping Early Adolescents Navigate the Path Successfully: Some Guidelines for Parents and Educators
What are educators and parents to do to foster positive and supportive relationships with young adolescents during the transition to high school? Here are some general guidelines suggested from some of the research:
It is clear that the children today face a multitude of challenges, particularly during the transition-linked turning point of early adolescence in transition to secondary school. It is also clear that environment, in particular, the school environment plays a vital role in determining a child’s resiliency during such time of change and development. Cognizant of the critical role schools play in promoting either risk or resiliency, educators’ consideration of programming that promotes students’ sense of belonging and
competence is vital. Future directions should include:
Resources for Parents/Caregivers
Websites
Selected References
For over 20 years, her research has examined children’s social and emotional development, with a focus on the development of children’s positive human traits, such as empathy, compassion, altruism, and optimism, and those factors that are associated with resiliency.
Dr. Schonert-Reichl is especially interested in identifying the ways in which children’s social and emotional development can be fostered in school and other educational settings. Currently, she is investigating the effectiveness of classroom-based social and emotional learning programs, including the Roots of Empathy Program and Hawn Foundations’ Mindfulness Education Program. She is also conducting research with psychobiologists examining the relation between biological processes, such as stress reactivity, and social emotional competence in children. Most recently, she has worked with The Learning Partnerhip and wrote a research paper which was used to kick off the 8 roundtable discussions across Canada on “what is youth resilience?”
Dr. Schonert-Reichl has been recognized for her teaching, her collaborative work with school districts in the Lower Mainland, and her scholarly activities that go beyond the academy. She is the winner of the 2007 University of British Columbia Killam Teaching Prize in recognition of excellence in undergraduate and graduate teaching. Additionally, in 2004, she received the Vancouver School Board Recognition Award for her collaborative work in the district in both research and professional development regarding the district’s initiative in the promotion of students’ social responsibility. And, most recently in 2009 the Confederation of University Faculty Association (CUFA-BC) awarded Dr. Schonert-Reichl with their highest Distinguished Academic Award – the Paz Buttedahl Career Achievement Award.
This summary discusses one behavioural theory that underpins school health promotion, safety, social development and other similar programs. The summary is one of several that are being developed within this wiki-based web site. Please see our Call for Writers/Contributors/Sponsors on Behaviour Theories for a full listing of this series of summaries.
Resiliency and Transitions: Early Adolescents and the Transition to High School
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Authors: Kim Schonert-Reichl (kimschon@interchange.ubc.ca), Molly Stewart Lawlor (lawlorhouse@shaw.ca) Editor: Doug McCall (dmccall@internationalschoolhealth.org)
Contributors:
First Draft Posted: March 6, 2009
Most Recent Major Update: January 20-2010
Permissions: This summary is "locked". Comments can be made anonymously by clicking on the "thread" button at the bottom of the page or by using the Discussion feature in the top navigation bar.
Related Summaries in this Web Site: Resilience & Schools (GT) Resilience as an Emerging Concept (EE), Fostering Resilience through Transitions (EE), Fostering Resilience through Family Programs (EE), After School Programs, Healthy Development & Resilience (HS) Resilience & School Programs (HS) and Resilience & Schools (BT)
Webinars from this Paper: Use your computer to see and hear a recorded Webinar presented by the author of this paper by using the following link:Promoting Resiliency through Youth Transitions
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Children at Risk in Canada – What Does the Research Say? In Canada there are a growing number of children with risk factors that compromise both their present and future adjustment (Schonert-Reichl, 2000). Recent data available from Statistics Canada and the Campaign 2000 Report Card on Child Poverty indicate that almost 1 in 6, or 17.7% of all children in Canada live below the poverty line (Statistics Canada, Income in Canada 2004). This represents 1.1 million Canadian children living in poverty as of 2001. Epidemiological estimates indicate that approximately 20% of children and youth experience significant mental health problems that warrant social services, yet many remain undiagnosed (Romano, Tremblay, Vitaro, Zoccolillo, & Pagani, 2001). School-based studies of children who suffer from serious emotional disorders reveals that more than 70% of those who need mental health services do not receive them (Estrada & Pinsof, 1995; Stanley, 2002). In a recent Canadian report, Waddell and Shepherd (2002) used large scale studies conducted in English-speaking,
westernized countries to estimate the prevalence rates for various mental health problems in children and youth, aged 4-17. Overall, they estimated that at least 14% experience some type of mental health disorder (well over 800,000 children across Canada). The
most common disorders included anxiety disorders, estimated to affect 6.4% of the population, conduct disorders and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, estimated to affect 4.2% and 4.8%, respectively, and depression, estimated to affect 3.5% of the
population.
For many, these recent research findings generate many more questions than answers. How can we help children cope with the many risks with which they are faced? What can we do to help them be successful in both their present and future adjustment?
In this paper, we focus specifically on one stressful time in the lives of young adolescents that has been associated with heightened risk and vulnerability -- the transition from elementary school to high school. A plethora of research has identified this transitional time in the life span as one in which young people are confronted with a myriad of new stressors with which they must cope – both related to context (e.g., larger school, increased academic demands) and developmental changes (e.g., cognitive development,
changing peer and parent relationships). We argue that the field of “resiliency” has much to offer for understanding the factors that can protect young adolescents as they make this transition and lead them on a road toward success. In pursuing this objective, we begin with a definition of resiliency and follow with identifying the importance of taking a resiliency perspective when considering transitions. Next, we provide a brief description of early adolescence as a transitional phase in development and then we go on to
characterize the high school as a context that can either promote risk or resiliency. We then provide examples of several programs and approaches that have been developed to assist early adolescents with the transition to high school. We end with a delineation of
suggested guidelines and recommended next steps for helping young people successfully traverse the path from elementary school to high school.
What is Resiliency?
How do some children and adolescents succeed when their development is threatened by a myriad of problems such as poverty, neglect, maltreatment, violence, isolation, war, or exposure to racism, and discrimination? How do we explain this phenomenon of “resilience” – children and adolescents demonstrating success and competence in the face of adversity? What are the ways that parents, educators, and other adults can foster resiliency in children and youth? Over the last several decades numerous
reports have emerged describing the experiences and outcomes of children and youth experiencing a range of problems that render them “at risk’ for developing into healthy and productive adults. What research now tells us is that there are a subset of children
and youth who experience success despite all of the obstacles to which they are exposed. These children have been identified as “resilient” – that is, they demonstrate positive adaptation despite adversity.
Resiliency generally refers to those factors and processes that interrupt the downward trajectory from risk and problem behaviours and result in adaptive outcomes even in the presence of adversity (Zimmerman & Arunkumar, 1994). Resiliency can be conceptualized as “a process of, or a capacity for, or the outcome of successful adaptation despite challenging and threatening circumstances” (Garmezy & Masten, 1991). Emerging research tells us that there are factors both internal to the individual
(e.g., self confidence, intelligence, hope and optimism) and to the external environment (e.g., one significant adult, involvement in extracurricular activities, school and community support) that promote resiliency, and that these factors do not operate in
isolation but instead interact with one another to help children and adolescents avoid negative consequences. Hence, resiliency research then offers a promising framework for efforts to reduce and prevent risk factors by focusing on examining the ways in which
individuals, despite the presence of risk factors, develop in healthy ways -- are resilient and “beat the odds.” The resilience concept has helped frame the study of child development using a strengths-based model rather than a deficit and problem-oriented
approach. Moreover, the popularity of the resiliency construct is due, in part, to the increased recognition that the key to prevention and intervention efforts is the identification of factors that lead to success rather than to just those factors that reduce
risk. Indeed, a lot can be learned from adopting a resiliency perspective to inform preventive approaches that support transitions.
Resiliency and Transitions
Transitional periods have been defined as phases in the life span in which developmental challenges and demands are intensified, and can be considered phases as heightened vulnerability or risk. In a child’s life, transitions can include birth of a sibling, parental separation, puberty, and the transition from elementary or middle school to high school. This latter “transition” is the topic that we will address in this paper.
Transitional periods have also been characterized as “transition-linked turning points” in development; events that have the potential to alter behaviour, affect, cognition, or context and can result in lifelong changes (Graber & Brooks-Gunn, 1998; Pickles & Rutter, 1991). In this vein, transitions should not only be thought as “risk promoting” or “vulnerability inducing” times in child development – transitions may also be thought as “windows of opportunity” – times in the life cycle in which positive development can be cultivated and fostered through opportunities provided to the individual in his/her environment that “promote” success, and serve as “protective”
factors that move the individual onward and upward to a pathway filled with competence.
Early Adolescence: A Transitional Phase in Development
As individuals traverse the path from childhood to adolescence, they encounter many roadblocks that at times seem insurmountable. The pathway is a particularly circuitous and challenging route for early adolescents due to the fact that more changes occur for individuals during this relatively short time-span in development than in any of other time in the life-cycle (with the exception of infancy). Indeed, the early adolescent years are characterized by dramatic physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes,
including an increasing focus on the peer group and changes in the nature of parent-child and adult-child relationships.
Early adolescence is the term commonly used to refer to children between the ages of 10 and 14 years. Although the identification of early adolescence is less demarcated than the periods of infancy, these years universally mark a distinctive period in which individuals undergo important developmental changes and which critical developmental transitions occur. Indeed, although an abundance of research has demonstrated that the early years are critical years for healthy child development, what happens during the early adolescent years is also critical with long lasting effects (Hertzman & Power, 2006). For instance, during early adolescence children gain entry to new settings, such as middle schools and high schools, that lead them to encounter pressures that present them with new developmental challenges – namely, an entire new world of expectations for their success (Eccles et al., 1993). Along this line, there is increasing influence of out-of-home environments on children’s developmental pathways (Bianchi et al., 1997). Indeed, children at this age, although still heavily influenced by the family milieu, are increasingly engaged in other environments and may be influenced by teachers, school environments, and peer groups.
The High School Context: A Context of Risk or Resiliency?
Is the high school a context in which risk or resiliency is promoted? In 1993, it was estimated that as many as 30% of 15- to 20-year-olds did not complete secondary school (Statistics Canada, 1993). Drop out rates have steadily decreased over the past
decade (Bowlby & McMullen, 2002), with nearly 17% of 20-24-year-olds neither attending school nor having a high school diploma. By 2004-2005, overall drop out rates had fallen to 9.8% but remained almost twice as high (16.4%) among youth from small
towns and rural communities as compared to youth from larger metropolitan areas (Bowlby, 2005). We now know that it is children who experience significant peer rejection and social difficulties during the elementary school years that are at risk for
school drop out at the secondary level (see Hymel, Comfort, Schonert-Reichl, & McDougall, 1996).
The potent role of the school context in promoting risk has received recent research attention. Research has consistently demonstrated that the early adolescent years mark the beginning of a downward spiral that leads some adolescent to experience school failure and subsequently dropout. Research conducted by Eccles and her colleagues (1993) suggests that the ethos of the secondary school itself may, in fact, be causing many of the motivational and academic problems that emerge in early adolescence.
Drawing from Hunt’s (1975) person-environment fit theory, Eccles et al. (1993) argue that the increases in behavioral problems and decreases in motivation typically seen in early adolescence are a result of developmentally inappropriate educational environments
for students, that is a consequence of a developmental stage-environment mismatch. For instance, adolescence is characterized by an emerging need for autonomy and self-determination. Midgley and Feldlaufer (1987) found, however, that grade 7 students and
their teachers in their first year of junior high school reported fewer classroom decision-making opportunities than did these same students and their teachers one year earlier in grade 6.Throughout the literature it is recognized that a child’s and adolescent’s
functioning in school is inextricably linked with his or her sense of belonging and connection to the school environment and his or her relationships with peers and teachers within it. Research by Roeser, Midgely, and Urdan (1996) demonstrates this point. In a
study examining the association between early adolescents’ perceptions of the school environment and their psychological and behavioral functioning, Roeser et al. conclude that “school environments that are perceived as supportive, caring, and as emphasizing
individual effort and improvement are related to a more adaptive pattern of cognition, affect, and behavior than are . . . school environments that are perceived as less supportive and emphasizing relative ability and competition” (p. 417). Perceiving
positive and strong connections to school have implications for current school functioning as well as future educational plans. For instance, in a large scale study examining the health status and psychological wellbeing of 25,838 adolescents grades 7
to 12 in British Columbia (McCreary, 1999), adolescents identified as having a high level of school connectedness were more likely to report lower levels of truancy and plans for post-secondary education than those adolescents identified as having low levels of school
connectedness. Taken together, these studies highlight the significance of school belonging in determining students’ present and future educational functioning.
Programs that Can Promote Resiliency During the Transition to High School
The transition from elementary to high school then offers an opportunity for educators to implement programs and practices that promote positive development and protect adolescents against many of the risk factors that may emerge during the onset of
the second decade of life. For adolescents deemed as “at risk” because of problems within their environment or other factors (e.g., peer rejection, school failure), as well as for other adolescents who may be experiencing a “bump in the road” because of the stress
pile-up (e.g., biological changes, cognitive development, changes in peer and family relationships) that is part and parcel of the early adolescent transition, the secondary school environment does not have to be one that is inherently risk promoting. The transition to secondary school can be an opportunity to redirect a developmental trajectory away from risk and toward success.
Recognition that transitioning from elementary to secondary school is a critical developmental milestone has led to the development of school-based programs designed to help young adolescents prepare for the number of varied and evolving demands present during this schooling transition. Such programs aim to build and foster children’s assets and protective factors, thus strengthening young adolescents’ resilience. Programs with this purpose in mind vary from small efforts developed within individual schools, to more systemic, well-researched evidence-based practices implemented nationally and internationally. Four illustrative examples of such programs include the School Transitional Environmental Program (STEP), the Rite of Passage Experience (ROPE), the Theatre Templeton Entering Big Productions (TTEBP), and the BASE program at Vancouver Technical Secondary School.
School Transitional Environmental Program (STEP)
STEP is a school organizational change initiative developed for adolescents aged twelve through eighteen. The program is based on the Transitional Life Events model, which theorizes that stressful life events such as making transitions between schools, places children at risk for maladaptive behaviour. Overarching goals of the program include decreasing student anonymity, increasing student accountability, and enhancing students’ abilities to learn school rules and exceptions.
Key Program Elements
- Targets predominantly nonwhite lower income students in transition from elementary and middle schools in large urban junior high and high schools.
- Small groups for homeroom period and academic subjects (these classrooms are physically close together).
- All classmates are STEP participants and are enrolled in the same core classes to help develop stable peer groups and enhance participants’ familiarity with the school.
- Homeroom teachers act as administrators and guidance counselors, providing class schedule assistance, academic counseling in school, and counseling in school for personal problems.
- Parents are included. The project is explained to caregivers and teachers notify them of student absences.
- Increased student bonding to school via the creation of smaller learning environments.
- Increased classmate stability during school transitions.
- Restructured teacher roles that were more supportive.
- Higher attendance rates, lower drop out rates, and better grades among middle and high school students.
Rite of Passage Experience® (ROPE®)
ROPE, developed by Dr. David Blumenkrantz at the Center for the Advancement of Youth, Family, and Community Services, has been delivered to over 100,000 youth and their families across the United States and Canada since its inception in 1981. ROPE
is a school and community-based initiative designed to provide children transitioning to middle school a rite of passage experience. ROPE’s 13-plus lessons per year provide a series of challenges that students have to meet individually and as a group; these lessons emphasize building group cohesion, trust and teamwork and decision-making. ROPE is a strengths-based approach with programmatic elements that aim to boost the 40 developmental assets proposed by the Search Institute.
Key Program Elements
- Implemented in both rural and urban environments.
- ROPE® is implemented in three phases:
- Phase I: 6th Grade – Ages 11-12 Developing the skills, mastery & healthy identity for the transition from childhood to adulthood.
- Phase II: 7th-8th Grades – Ages 13-14 Exploring Positive Leisure Activities (connects youth with community resources to participate in after-school activities)
- Phase III: 9th-12th Grades – Ages 15-18 Giving Back to the Community (fosters student commitment to community service).
- School-wide, family and community involvement
There has been limited research on the ROPE program; however, one unpublished study evaluated 75 grade six students of unspecified ethnicity who received one school year of ROPE. Results at post-test revealed that students who participated in the program reported greater involvement with family compared to students in the comparison group (Hawkins, 1986). There was no follow-up to this study.
Theatre Templeton Entering Big Productions (TTEBP), Vancouver, Canada
The Theatre Templeton Entering Big Productions is a theatre and film program developed by staff and led by Jimmy Crescenzo at Templeton Secondary School in Vancouver, British Columbia. The program offers grade 7 students who have the option
to feed into Templeton the following year for grade 8, an opportunity to join secondary students in a film class. TTEBP is theoretically connected to Dr. Gordon Neufeld’s work, which is focused on attachment and the importance of supportive relationships. Guided
by these theoretical underpinnings, TTEBP has a strong mentorship component, in which, older grade 10 and 11 students work with the grade 7 students on two major projects focused on social responsibility and community service. In addition, a team of adults
including professionals from the community (e.g., set designers, drug and alcohol counsellors) work with the students on a major film project from November to February. The program is in its second year of implementation and has added a summer pilot program based on the same model.
Key Program Elements
- Student bonding fostered through small, integrated groups of grade 7 students and older secondary students for a three-month period.
- School connection and familiarity promoted through student mentorship. Some of these mentors are also hired for the summer film program to provide continuity.
- Relationships with significant adults cultivated with connect to school staff and community members.
- Students are provided with opportunities to connect with an outside professional community.
To date, there have been no formal evaluations of TTEBP. However, anecdotal data are positive thus far. For example, school staff have noted that grade 7 TTEBP students made a smoother transition into secondary school and exhibited greater attachment and bonding to school the year following their participation in the program,
The BASE Program and Vancouver Technical Secondary School, Vancouver, Canada
The BASE program is a student-led initiative designed to address school safety and was created in 2002 at Vancouver Technical Secondary School in Vancouver, British Columbia. BASE is a mentorship program that aims to facilitate the transition from elementary school to secondary school for all Grade 8 students. A group of 40-50 grade 10 to 12 students is recruited to be trained as mentors and BASE leaders with each leader are then assigned to a grade 8 homeroom class. Along with facilitating the transition to secondary school, program goals include creating a safe and caring school community and building positive relationships between younger and older students. Grade 7 students are introduced to the BASE program via presentations in feeder elementary schools
Key Program Elements
- Student mentorship component to build school community.
- BASE leaders (Grades 10 to 12 students) learn skills to address bullying, harassment, and discrimination.
- Year-round program operation: leaders meet grade 8 students on first day of school; numerous events organized throughout year; monthly meetings with BASE leaders and grade 8 groups; weekly drop-in BASE lunches.
- Connection to community neighbourhood house (Frog Hollow).
To date, there have been no formal evaluations of the BASE program. Anecdotally, students who have participated in the BASE program have reported the following:
- It’s a great opportunity to make the school environment safer.
- It’s FUN!
- I was given the opportunity to know the grade 8s better and participate in fun activities.
- It’s a fun experience to know how grade 8s feel, and getting to know them was
- fun.
- BASE is a good opportunity to reach out to younger grades and learn new skills.
- BASE is worthwhile, and is something you will remember!
- BASE helped me be a better facilitator and helped me be a better person.
- It’s an awesome program where grade 8s and 12s interact.
Common Program Elements
The following table illustrates some of the common key elements found in the STEP, ROPE, and TTEBP programs.
| Common Program Elements | STEP | ROPE | TTEBP | BASE |
| Focus on Positive Peer Relationships | Student bonding is fostered through small group learning environments. | Students work together in groups to work through lesson challenges. Older students mentor younger students. | Student bonding is fostered through small groups rotated every 3 months. Student mentorship component. | Student bonding fostered through mentorship. Grade 8’s grouped with one BASE leader. |
| Focus on Positive Relationships with Adults | Homeroom teacher plays a supportive role. | Students have at least three other Guides they may connect with during ROPE, including a high school mentor. | Students work closely with two school staff members. Students connect with team of community professionals. | Program facilitated by BASE Program Coordinator at Frog Hollow Neighbourhood House |
| Focus on Fostering Community Connectedness | Small group core classes, located close together in the school, to help develop stable peer groups and increase familiarity with school. | Students’ engage in fun group activities during school, boosting students’ perception of greater bonding and attachment to school. | Students afforded opportunity to connect and familiarize to secondary school the year prior to entering. Students connect with school and larger film community. | Students connect to both secondary school and neighbourhood community via a series of organized BASE events |
The Critical Role of Relationships
Seen here, it is clear all four programs (STEP, ROPE, TTEBP, and BASE) emphasize relationships as key program ingredients to assist students transitioning from elementary to secondary school. A review of the literature by Luthar (2006) across five decades of research on resilience among children and adults led to the conclusion that “Resilience rests, fundamentally on relationships.” Moreover, Luthar and Brown (2007) contend that: “It is quite clear that the single most deleterious environmental risk is the
sustained presence of neglect and abuse, and conversely, committed, loving relationships
have high protective potential” (p. 943).
Moreover, The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2004), Stated simply, relationships are the ‘active ingredient’ of the environment’s influence on healthy human development. They incorporate the qualities that best promote competence and well-being – individualized responsiveness, mutual action-andinteraction, and an emotional connection to another human being, be it a parent, peer, grandparent, aunt, uncle, neighbor, teacher, coach, or any other person who has an important impact on the child’s early development.
Clearly, the power of children’s and adolescents’ relationships with important adults transcends families and operates across the multiple contexts in which children and youth live – including schools and neighbourhoods (Scales & Gibbons, 1996). If we have
learned nothing else about preventing negative life outcomes among children and adolescents, we know that having a caring and supportive relationship with at least one adult is extremely important for healthy development and for promoting resilience, as
illustrated by the seminal work of Werner and Smith (1982). New research, however, is now showing that more than one significant adult can make an even greater difference in the lives of children and youth. In a recent large scale study funded by the United Way of the Lower Mainland of 1,266 Canadian children, ages 9 to 12, it was found that children who reported that they had at least two or more adults whom they felt were “important” to them in school, reported greater levels of optimism, happiness, school motivation, self
confidence, empathy, concern for others, and other positive attributes in contrast to those children reporting either none or one significant adult (Schonert-Reichl, 2007). Research has also demonstrated the benefits of significant adults relationships for children and youth in contexts outside of the school and within the context of community organizations, such as Boys and Girls Club and Big Brothers/Big Sisters (Tierney, Grossman & Resch, 1995), along with more informal networks in communities and neighbourhoods.
The Importance of School Context and School Belonging
The STEP, ROPE, TTEBP, and BASE programs also recognize the importance of building a strong sense of school belonging. Unfortunately, for many children and youth today, positive relationships with a caring adult or adults are neither readily available
within their immediate family nor in their surrounding communities. This reality creates a more compelling reason for schools to fulfill their mission “to educate students to be knowledgeable, responsible, socially skilled, healthy, caring, and contributing citizens”
(Greenberg, Weissberg, Utne O’Brien, Zins, Fredericks, Resnik, et al. 2003) and to create the kind of social environments where all students feel accepted, supported, and valued as contributing members of the school community and thus, ultimately, as members of our larger society.
The crucial point from the perspective of the promotion of resilience in children and adolescents is that schools must be places that foster students’ positive development not just in academics, but in the social, emotional, and moral aspects of their lives as
well. In short, schools must become health-promoting environments, where young people acquire the abilities, inclinations, motivation, and values to succeed in their lives.
How is it that so many youth exposed to adverse life circumstances manage to survive, or even thrive, and what can schools do to promote this? A variety of evidence converges on the importance of belonging as a critical component of doing well in life: that is, the feeling that one is a competent, contributing, and valued member of a prosocial group. This evidence comes from both basic research on effective schooling and evaluations of school-based intervention programs. Although not all of these studies have examined the same outcomes for youth, they collectively have examined effects on a wide range of contemporary social problems, and their findings consistently indicate that young people who attend schools where they feel accepted, competent, and valued are much less likely to become involved in problem behaviours.
One important piece of this evidence comes from an ongoing longitudinal study of a nationally representative sample of adolescents. This research has found that, along with positive relationships with one’s family, a sense of connectedness to school is the most significant protective factor for every problem behaviour examined, including alcohol and drug abuse, violence and delinquency, and early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy. Consistent with these findings, evaluations of a number of positive youth development programs for elementary schools have found long-term positive effects on students’ involvement in problem behaviours. One example is the Seattle Social Development Project, an elementary school intervention that has followed program and comparison children into early adulthood. This study found significant positive effects on drug use, delinquent behaviours, and precocious sexual activity, as well as improved academic attitudes and achievement. Another is the Child Development Project, which has been evaluated in a number of studies and has been found not only to promote children’s general positive development, but to have significant preventive effects on students’ involvement in problem behaviours at least throughout the middle school years.
Both of these programs have identified students’ feelings of belonging to school as a primary reason for their positive effects. The findings of these studies and related research clearly suggest that schools that focus on promoting the overall positive development of youth (i.e., character education) by creating caring and supportive environments where students feel that they belong also effectively prevent the involvement of their students in a variety of problem behaviours. But why should this be the case? As suggested above, the central issue is the importance of positive interpersonal relationships to human development.
Helping Early Adolescents Navigate the Path Successfully: Some Guidelines for Parents and Educators
What are educators and parents to do to foster positive and supportive relationships with young adolescents during the transition to high school? Here are some general guidelines suggested from some of the research:
- Be aware of the cognitive, emotional, and social changes that early adolescents are undergoing. For example, changes occur in how the early adolescent thinks. Whereas in childhood thinking focused on the here and now, early adolescents now have the capacity to think more abstractly – to imagine the possibilities, to identify options and to systematically weigh each option. They also having the ability to understand more sophisticated forms of humor (satire, etc.) and to identify hypocrisy. One offshoot of this new thinking that is relevant to parent-adolescent and adult-adolescent conflict is that as a result of their new and improved thinking skills, early adolescents are also better at arguing their point and picking up what they see as any inconsistencies in parents’/adults’ reasoning. However keep in mind that early adolescents’ new thinking also can lead to increased self-consciousness and decreased self-confidence. Research has found increases in depressive affect and negative life events as children enter early adolescence.
- Be sympathetic to what it must be like for early adolescents to be experiencing a “stress pileup.” Recall for yourself a time when you had to undergo many changes and transitions in a relatively short period of time, and the stress that resulted.
- Realize that despite their constant pleas for independence, early adolescents need structure and support. They need to be loved and supported from all of the adults in their support circles as well as know what the boundaries are and why such boundaries are in place. Always provide a justification for your decisions. When you have to say no, make sure you explain your reasoning. Communicate expectations for high standards of conduct and achievement.
- Demonstrate sustained interest in their lives – and show them warmth and mutual respect. Take the time to listen to early adolescents. Although many times it may seem that for early adolescents having a conversation with their parent or a teacher is at the very bottom of their “to do” list – find the moments where conversations can occur.
It is clear that the children today face a multitude of challenges, particularly during the transition-linked turning point of early adolescence in transition to secondary school. It is also clear that environment, in particular, the school environment plays a vital role in determining a child’s resiliency during such time of change and development. Cognizant of the critical role schools play in promoting either risk or resiliency, educators’ consideration of programming that promotes students’ sense of belonging and
competence is vital. Future directions should include:
- Focus on research:More research in general that identifies specific mechanisms andprotective factors in determining resilience during times of transition.More research specific to the Canadian educational context. More research specific to special groups (First Nations, new immigrants,special needs students).
- Focus on professional development: The creation of a clearinghouse for educators to obtain information aboutprograms and to share information about individual school efforts.More training for teachers and other adults who work with children in this age group regarding the developmental characteristics and needs of these children.
- Focus on program development and evaluation:More rigorous program evaluations to determine the effectiveness of these programs.More systemic efforts around program implementation.Inclusion of parent/caregiver components within programs.Dedicated funding to secondary school to implement evidence-based practices.
Resources
Resources for Educators - Elias, M.J., Arnold, H., & Steiger C. (Eds.) (2002). EQ+IQ: Best Leadership practices for caring and successful schools. Corwin Press: Thousand Oaks, CA.
- Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Frey, K. S., Greenberg, M. T., Haynes, N. M., Kessler, R., Schwab-Stone, M. E., & Shriver, T. P. (1997). Promoting social and emotional learning: Guidelines for educators. Alexandria, VA: Association for
- Supervision and Curriculum Development.
- Novick, B., Kress, J.S, Elias, M.J. (2002). Building learning communities with character: How to integrate academic, social, and emotional learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
- Patti, J., & Tobin, J. (2006). Smart school leaders: Leading with emotional intelligence. Iowa: Kendall Hunt.
- Sulley, P. (2007). Safe Places to Learn : 21 Lessons to Help Students Promote a Caring School Climate. Search Institute Press.
- Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (Eds.) (2004). Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say?
Resources for Parents/Caregivers
- Benson, P.L. (2008). Sparks: How Parents Can Ignite the Hidden Strengths of Teenagers. Jossey-Bass
- Elias, M. J., Tobias, S. E., & Friedlander, B. S. (2000). Raising emotionally intelligent teenagers: Parenting with love, laughter, and limits. New York: Harmony Books.
- Elias, M. J., Tobias, S. E., & Friedlander, B. S. (1999). Emotionally intelligent parenting:How to raise a self-disciplined, responsible, socially skilled child. New York: Harmony Books.
- Kimbell-Baker, K., Wetterling, P. (2004). Connect 5: Finding the Caring Adults You May Not Realize Your Teen Needs. Search Institute Press
- Kohn, A. (2006). Unconditional Parenting: Moving from Rewards and Punishments to Love and Reason. Atria; 1st Atria Books Trade Pbk. Ed edition
- Neufeld, G. (2006). Hold On to Your Kids: Why Parents Need to Matter More Than Peers. Ballantine Books
Websites
- Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) www.casel.org
- Rite of Passage Experience (ROPE). www.rope.org
- The Search Institute www.search-institute.org
- Transformative Parenting www.transformativeparenting.com
Selected References
- Canadian Education Statistics Council. (2000). Education indicators in Canada: Report of the Pan-Canadian Education Indicators Program 1999. Author.
- Estrada, A. U., & Pinsof, W. M. (1995). The effectiveness of family therapies for selected behavior disorders of childhood. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy,21(4), 403-440.
- Felner, R.D., Brand, S., Adan, A.M., Mulhall, P.F., Flowers, N., Sartain, B., et al. (1993). Restructuring the ecology of the school as an approach to prevention during school transitions: Longitudinal follow-ups and extensions of the School Transitional Environment Project (STEP). Prevention in Human Services, 10, 103-136.
- Graber, J. A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). Transitions and turning points: Navigating the passage from childhood through adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 32,768-776.
- Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., Utne O’Brien, M., Zins, J. E., Fredericks, L., Resnik, H. et al. (2003). Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development through coordinated social, emotional, and academic-learning, American Psychologist, 58, 466-474.
- Hawkins, J.A. (1986). Preliminary report on the evaluation of the ROPE program. New Haven, CT: Yale University.
- Illback, R. (1994). Poverty and the crisis in children’s services: The need for services integration. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology. 23, 413, 424.
- Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds), Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 739-795). New York: Wiley. (p. 780).
- Pickles, A., & Rutter, M. (1991). Statistical and conceptual models of 'turning points' in developmental processes. In D. Magnusson, L. R. Bergman, G. Rudinger, & B. Torestad (Eds.), Problems and methods in longitudinal research: Stability and change (pp. 133-165). Cambridge,England: Cambridge University Press.
- Romano, E., Tremblay, R. E., Vitaro, F., Zoccolillo, M., & Pagani, L. (2001). Prevalence of psychiatric diagnosis and the role of perceived impairment: Findings from an adolescent community sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 451-461.
- Ryan, R. M., & Powelson, C. L. (1991). Autonomy and relatedness as fundamental to motivation and education. Journal of Experimental Education, 60, 49-66.
- Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning in school: The mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 408-422.
- Scales, P., & Gibbons, J. L. (1996). Extended family members and unrelated adults in the lives of young adolescents: A research agenda. Journal of Early Adolescence, 16, 365-389.
- Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2000). Children and youth at risk: Some conceptual considerations. Refereed paper prepared for the Pan-Canadian Education Research Agenda Symposium, Ottawa, Ontario. Sponsored by the Canadian Education Statistics Council with the assistance of Human Resources Development Canada (HRDC). Available on-line: http://www.cmec.ca/stats/pcera/symposium2000/
- Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2007). Middle childhood inside and out: The psychological and social world of children ages 9 to 12. Burnaby, BC: United Way of the Lower Mainland.
- Statistics Canada (September, 1993). Leaving school. Report for Human Resources and Labour Canada.
- Steinhauer, P. D. (1996). Developing resiliency in children from disadvantaged populations. Ottawa: National Forum on Youth.
- Tierney, J. P., Grossman, J. B., & Resch, N. L. (1995). Making a difference: An impact study of Big Brothers/Big Sisters. Philadelphia, Pa.: Public/Private Ventures.
- Waddell, C., McEwan, K., Shepherd, C., Offord, D.R., & Hua, J. (2005). A public health strategy to improve the mental health of Canadian children. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50 (4), 226-233.
- Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Zimmerman, M. A., & Arunkumar, R. (1994). Resiliency research: Implications for school and policy. Social Policy Report, Society for Research in Child Development, 8, 1-20.
For over 20 years, her research has examined children’s social and emotional development, with a focus on the development of children’s positive human traits, such as empathy, compassion, altruism, and optimism, and those factors that are associated with resiliency.
Dr. Schonert-Reichl is especially interested in identifying the ways in which children’s social and emotional development can be fostered in school and other educational settings. Currently, she is investigating the effectiveness of classroom-based social and emotional learning programs, including the Roots of Empathy Program and Hawn Foundations’ Mindfulness Education Program. She is also conducting research with psychobiologists examining the relation between biological processes, such as stress reactivity, and social emotional competence in children. Most recently, she has worked with The Learning Partnerhip and wrote a research paper which was used to kick off the 8 roundtable discussions across Canada on “what is youth resilience?”
Dr. Schonert-Reichl has been recognized for her teaching, her collaborative work with school districts in the Lower Mainland, and her scholarly activities that go beyond the academy. She is the winner of the 2007 University of British Columbia Killam Teaching Prize in recognition of excellence in undergraduate and graduate teaching. Additionally, in 2004, she received the Vancouver School Board Recognition Award for her collaborative work in the district in both research and professional development regarding the district’s initiative in the promotion of students’ social responsibility. And, most recently in 2009 the Confederation of University Faculty Association (CUFA-BC) awarded Dr. Schonert-Reichl with their highest Distinguished Academic Award – the Paz Buttedahl Career Achievement Award.
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