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This paper was initially prepared for Health Canada and the Health & Learning Knowledge Centre of the Canadian Council on Learning to facilitate discussion of practical applications of resilience-based research in schools and several other settings. This draft is more focused on the topic of after school programs more generally.

Readers are invited to comment on the paper by using the "thread" feature found at the bottom of this page. If you would like to discuss the concept of resilience more generally, please use the "Discussions" feature found in the navigation bar for this web site at the top of the page. Readers can also the "Easy Edit" tool found at the top of the page to alter the text (All versions of the draft are automatically saved within the system) Thanks in advance for your participation.
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Authors: Claire Crooks and Shanna Burns CAMH Centre for Prevention Science
Editor: Doug McCall
Contributors:
First Draft Posted: March 6, 2009
Most Recent Posted: January 20, 2010 (This draft has been adapted to focus on after school programs)
Further Comments:
Permissions for Use: The authors, writers, editors, contributors, sponsors, partners and the International School Health Network retain the right to first publish this document or adapted versions thereof in accordance with regular copyright laws. However, web links to this page and excerpts from this document are encouraged. As well, visitors to and participants in this wiki-based community are encouraged to add sub-pages or links to additional case studies or other documents and thereby become a contributor to this document.
Related Summaries in this Web Site: Resilience & Schools (GT) Resilience as an Emerging Concept (EE), Fostering Resilience through Transitions (EE), Fostering Resilience through Family Programs (EE), After School Programs, Healthy Development & Resilience (HS) Resilience & School Programs (HS) and Resilience & Schools (BT)
Webinars from this Paper: Use your computer to see and hear a recorded Webinar presented by the author of this paper by using the following link: Promoting Resiliency through after-school programs
Sponsors: Office of Demand Reduction, Health Canada
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After School Programs, Healthy Development and Resilience

After-school programming provides an opportunity to promote health and build youths’ capacity for resiliency through several mechanisms. The most relevant of these mechanisms are the development of particular competencies and skills, the development of meaningful relationships with caring adults, and the opportunity to be engaged in positive and meaningful endeavors. These programs are particularly important for vulnerable youth who may not have environments that offer these types of opportunities. In this summary, after-school programming has been defined to include out-of-school programming that takes place at any time (e.g., before school or at lunch), and is both school-based (in terms of location) and school-linked (i.e., has some type of collaborative relationship with school). We have limited the scope to activities that offer some type of broadly defined social-emotional programming beyond general childcare, provision of nutrition (i.e., breakfast programs), or academic enrichment programs (i.e., computer clubs). Some of the programs described in this summary can be delivered in-school, on location after-school or in the community depending on the needs of a particular school or community. In that regard, the distinctions among some of these programs as being school-linked or not is somewhat arbitrary as it may depend on the individual community. However, all of the programs and principles discussed in this summary could be structured as after-school programming.

Type of Programs: Within the parameters defined above, after school programs typically fall into one of these broad types.

  • Mentoring programs focus on developing strong relationships between mentors or mentees and may have an academic focus or a more social and personal development focus. Mentoring programs vary in design in that the mentors may be adults or peers, the mentoring may be one-on-one or in groups, and the duration may range. What distinguishes them as mentoring programs is a clear definition of roles (i.e., mentors versus mentees); a commitment to meet on a pre-specified, regular basis; and orientation and training for the mentors. School-based mentoring programs are run after school, at lunch, and/or during school time. Some of them are developed and overseen entirely by school staff while others involve partnerships with local community partners.
  • Skills-based programs emphasize the development of skills in a particular area. These can be general academic skills (such as homework clubs) or programming in a specific area (such as science programs that run at lunch or after school). They might also target a specific group, such as a literacy program for new Canadians. These programs can be staffed internally or be conducted through partnerships, often with a local agency or postsecondary institution. Many of these programs incorporate social skills or peer resistance skills. For example, university students may come to the school to offer a lunchtime or after-school science club, or a staff member from a women’s shelter might run a lunchtime program for adolescent girls emphasizing assertive communication and self-efficacy.

  • Leadership activities focus on helping youth (primarily adolescents) develop the skills to plan and implement activities that provide benefit to their peers, schools, and broader communities. This type of programming may take the form of a club with regular meetings, and the group of youth works to organize a number of initiatives over the course of the school year. Leadership activities are also skill-based in that they focus on developing leadership skills, social skills, and character development.Within these broad categories, some organizations or programs offer different combinations of these three types of activities. For example, a Boys and Girls Club in a particular city might offer a school-based mentoring program and an after-school homework club. Conversely, a skill-based science program (such as Actua) might include a mentoring component. There is also a fourth category that cuts across these three; Programming for Special Groups.

  • Programming for Special Groups are programs that apply the three preceding strategies (mentoring, skill development, and leadership) to an identified group with particular needs and challenges. Two common examples are girl specific programming and programming for Aboriginal youth. Both of these types of programming have emerged from recognition that these groups have specific challenges that are the socio-cultural reality faced by their group identity. For example, girl-specific programming has been recommended as a strategy to combat the observed drop in self-esteem and rise in depression that occurs in the pre-teen years for girls. (Calhoun & Lamg, 2005). Both girl-specific (Hawkins et al, 2009, Depauw & Glass, 2008), and Aboriginal-specific programming are premised on the idea that these youth require special opportunities to develop resilience based on the societal pressures that they face (Pridemore, 2004; Crooks et al, 2009). These programs still apply best practice principles, but also address group-specific engagement strategies and issues.
Evidence of Effectiveness:

Before summarizing key findings of the literature, there are two provisos that require comment:

  • First, the vast majority of program evaluations have been conducted in the United States. In addition to important social and political differences between the two countries, there is a significant difference in the level of institutional funding provided for after-school programming. At both federal and state levels in the United States, enormous sums of money are provided for this type of programming.
  • Second, it is important to remember that a program as evaluated and published is not the same as the program as implemented elsewhere. In addition to “program drift” that can occur even in a highly structured, manual-based program, the reality is that these programs tend to rely more on guiding principles then specific, structured protocols. Programs offered by Boys and Girls Club in Comox, B.C. will not look the same as programs offered by the Boys and Girls Club in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, and neither of these will be exactly the same as the Boys and Girls Clubs programs that have been evaluated and published (St. Pierre et al, 1997). It is reasonable to expect that adherence to these principles will provide positive impacts, but there should not be the same degree of confidence that would exist if that particular program in that particular community had been evaluated.
With these two cautions in mind, it is still reasonable to believe that mentoring, skills-based, and leadership-based activities provide youth with opportunities to build critical resilience factors, which in turn offset existing risk factors for negative outcomes such as substance abuse.

Mentoring has been identified as a promising strategy for the prevention of substance use largely because it promotes resilience factors such as connection to a positive adult and a supportive relationship (Jekielek et al. 2002).. Mentoring has been associated with improved educational achievement (i.e., better attendance, better chance of going on to higher education and better attitudes towards school) and improved social attitudes and relationships. The evidence about whether mentoring specifically reduces substance use has been more complex. Numerous studies of Big Brothers Big Sisters do find a reduction in substance use, but not always in the short-term. A number of reviews and papers have identified program characteristics associated with more effective mentoring outcomes. Some of these characteristics include long-term involvement with mentors, contact between mentors and the youth’s family, and programs that offer structure. There is some evidence that short-term mentoring does not offer the same impact as long-term. Finally, outcomes have been more positive for at-risk or disadvantaged youth, which is not surprising as youth with lots of resources may already have these types of supportive relationships with adults.

Other studies have found that after-school programs can build resiliency to substance use by enhancing social skills and increasing intentions not to use drug. Effects have been best for programs that offer specific social skills and character development activities. Beyond participating in skill-based activities, there may be an additive impact for being involved as an organizer. A study of the feasibility of including young adolescents in alcohol-prevention activities found an association between being involved with the planning and a lower substance use rate, even after controlling for other related variables(Komro et al. 1996). It is difficult to say that this association is causal, as the students who choose to participate in peer-planning activities is not random; nonetheless, it is reasonable to assume that activities that promote empowerment through leadership may offer an additional impact.

Finally, another important area of research to consider is that of youth engagement. Youth engagement is not a particular activity, but rather a process defined as “meaningful participation and sustained involvement of a young person in an activity, with a focus outside of him or herself. The kind of activity in which the youth is engaged can be almost anything – sports, the arts, music, volunteer work, politics, social activism – and it can occur in almost any kind of setting (Centre of Excellence, 2007). Youth engagement is a nonspecific protective factor that has been connected to a wide range of positive outcomes including lower rates of school failure and drop-out and lower rates of anti-social and criminal behavior. Youth engagement has been associated with decreased alcohol use, decreased marijuana and hard drug use, lower rates of school failure, and lower rates of sexual activity and pregnancy. From a youth engagement perspective, then, it is not necessarily the specific nature of the activity that is important (i.e., mentoring vs. leadership vs. skill-based) as much as the meaning for a youth who is involved.

At the same time, youth attendance or participation in and of themselves cannot be equated with youth engagement.
In summary, the literature as a whole suggests that after-school programming can have a positive impact on youth beyond limiting their unsupervised time. Through these programs, youth are provided with opportunities to develop healthy relationships, increase competencies, and become engaged in meaningful activities. Although there is limited literature linking the specific programs to reduced substance use, there is ample literature demonstrating that these other factors (healthy relationships, etc.) provide protection against substance use and other negative outcomes.

Case Examples:
In the following section we have provided examples of each type of programming. Following a brief program description, we highlight factors that have led to successful implementation and sustainability of these programs. Some of these identified success factors have been in direct response to challenges (such as waitlist times). Lessons and success factors identified across a range of programs are identified in Appendix A. Links to key reports and other resources to provide more information in these areas are provided in Appendix B.

MENTORING PROGRAMS

Big Brothers / Big Sisters
Big Brothers Big Sisters offer mentoring programs that provide opportunities for youth to interact with adults in one-to-one friendships. Community mentoring is a program designed to match a “Big” sister or brother with a “Little” sister or brother on factors such as interests and location. Together, they take part in events and activities or just spend time together. The goal is to create an opportunity for the youth (typically aged 7 to 13), to increase their sense of belonging, self-worth, resiliency, and capacity to make healthy, well-informed decisions through their relationship with a caring adult. Big Brothers / Big Sisters is probably the longest-standing organization delivering mentoring programs and has been the subject of several evaluations, all of which have found positive impacts of the program.

There are a variety of programs adaptations designed to create mentoring opportunities for a range of participants, including young people, seniors, professionals, couples, and Aboriginal people. Due to some difficulties with logistics, a partnership with the Boys and Girls Club was established to offer a program called Club Connect, which maintains the one-to-one mentoring relationship, but takes place at the Boys and Girls Club. Programming has been adapted to accommodate students who may not otherwise have access to these services. In-school mentoring is available in which a mentor, who could be a teen, a “big buddy” or an adult, will come to the elementary school and will engage in activities, events, or just spend time with a child. Finally, a program called “Big Bunch” was established for adult volunteers who wish to provide encouragement and friendship to a small group of children. A small group of 2-4 “Littles” will get the unique opportunity of sharing time with an adult friend, as well as other kids their own age. Big Brother / Big Sisters organizations exist across the country and provide a good example of sustainability through ongoing innovation and adaptation of their core service.

Success Factors for Big Brothers & Sisters
  • Flexibility in service delivery to deal with identified barriers (eg group-based mentoring to address long waiting lists and school-based mentoring to make service more accessible to youth
  • Effective partnerships with other youth-serving agencies such as Boys & Girls Clubs
  • Adapting to other mentoring opportunities, including couples, seniors
  • Balance between keeping key ingredients of the program which have contributed to success while innovating to meet changing demands
  • Being diversified in their funding sources

LEADERSHIP-BASED PROGRAMS

Torch and Keystone Clubs of the Boys and Girls Clubs
The Boys and Girls Clubs offer a wide range of programs in general, including a number of youth leadership programs such as Youth Councils, Keystone Clubs and Torch Clubs. Through involvement in these programs, youth are encouraged to become active citizens in their communities and enthusiastically participate in making them better places to live. Youth Councils are designed to provide youth with representation at the national, provincial and local levels of the Boys and Girls Club movement. Youth Council members serve as ambassadors and role models for the other children and youth throughout the organization and positively influence decision-making on issues related to youth, through active involvement on boards and committees. They also play a key role in the planning of Boys and Girls Club youth conferences. The Keystone Clubs focus on leadership, education and career development, economic/political awareness and social recreation - elements that are crucial to channeling the high energy of teens in a positive direction. Keystone Clubs are for Boys and Girls Club members 14 years of age and older. Each Keystone Club has its own officers who choose and plan their own activities with the guidance of an adult advisor. Torch Clubs are consider a junior Keystone program in that they provide the foundation for enabling young people to meet the demands of citizenship with inspired leadership and concern for others. The programs, for pre-teens aged 10 - 13, provide a small group experience, with the support and guidance of an adult mentor, offering the opportunity to give service to others and gain the sense of responsibility that comes with making their own decisions.

Success Factors for Boys & Girls Clubs
  • Combination of recreational programming and emphasis on character development as well as enhancement of social skills
  • Focus on youth as assetts to the community who can be engaged as powerful agents of change
  • A range of options for levels of involvement for youth depending on time available from youth
  • A range of leadership programs through which youth progress, each of which provide youth with the skills to be involved in the next level rather than providing leadership opportunities only for the oldest or more capable

Youth Safe Schools Committees (Thames Valley District School Board)

Youth Leadership can be facilitated in the form of Youth Action Committees or Youth Safe School Committees. The Fourth R Program, in a partnership with the Thames Valley District School Board in London, Ontario, maintains these committees as a key component to ensuring that students receive a consistent message about preventing violence and promoting healthy relationships both in the classroom and in the school and community. These groups of secondary school students are peer leaders, providing support to peers and staff. Their efforts focus on raising awareness and providing information about issues important to teens, connecting to parents and community services, and working with teachers. Members of these committees will work together to connect with community agencies and resources to work together on issues pertaining to health and safety, organize media campaigns or other activates to raise awareness of issues relevant to youth, organize “awareness” events about violence in their school and community, assist Grade 9/10 classrooms with role play examples and peer feedback, and provide information about the committee’s activities to parents. A youth committee in one school published an anti-violence magazine that highlighted students’ writing, poetry, and artwork related to a particular theme. That initiative has grown such that the magazine is in its fifth year of publication and submissions are received from across the district. These leaders in the schools can also be mentors to younger students, making connections to older students who share similar interests and backgrounds.

Success Factors for Youth Safe School Committees
  • A designated teacher to oversee the committee and assist with planning of activities
  • Two annual school district conferences that give youth leaders the opportunity to meet with youth form other schools working towards similar goals and to share strategies
  • District wide awards program that raises the profile of youth leadership in violence prevention
  • Structured manual that addresses all areas of youth committee function - recruitment, activity planning and implementation, evaluating initiatives and engaging in succession planning

SKILLS-BASED PROGRAMS

Actua Science Programs
Actua offers many programs designed to engage youth in learning about the professional fields of science, engineering and technology. Their programming includes mentorship, clubs, camps and workshops, with an option of co-ed or all-girls participation. Clubs tend to meet weekly and focus on the development of particular skills through hands-on science experiments and activities. Outreach is provided for girls, aboriginal youth, and other youth in rural and remote communities who have little or no access to extra-curricular programming. Members of the Actua team travel to bring camps to local community centres and schools, as well as proactively seeking opportunities to deliver programming to youth in inner-city locations. When possible, Actua will partner with other community-based serving organizations as a means to engage youth who are potentially underprivileged and/or at-risk.

Success factors for Actua Program
  • Partnership with universities, which provides access to young adults who are motivated and interested in the area and want to work with youth
  • Engagement strategies and bursaries to increase participation among marginalized and vulnerable youth
  • Incorporation of mentoring strategies and focus on healthy relationships in addition to developing science and math skills
  • Increased confidence and efficacy among participants due to mastery of science concepts
  • Making material that might be daunting in the classroom setting interactive and fun through a hands-ons club format
  • Combination of a national network that helps to provide protocols, training and support but also having the flexiblity to meet the needs of on the local community in how and when the programming is delivered

PROGRAMMING FOR SPECIFIC GROUPS

Go Girls!
Go Girls was started in 2001 by OPHEA (Ontario Physical and Health Education Association). The program “Go Girls! Healthy Bodies, Healthy Minds” is designed to provide girls aged 12-14 with information to help them make informed choices about healthy active living and support them in dealing with the emotional, social, and cultural issues they may face. In addition, the program provides girls with the tools they need to implement this healthier and happier lifestyle. Go Girls! is a mentor-lead, seven session program that incorporates fun, educational games and activities designed to stimulate self-reflection and group discussion. Each session addresses the topics of active living, balanced eating, and feeling good. Participants and mentors also complete a personal journal at the end of each session. The key issues for girls participating in the program include body image, self-esteem, healthy eating, physical activity, and relationships. Overall, the goal of the program is to help girls develop an appreciation of the benefits of an active, healthy lifestyle, while providing them with the skills to implement this lifestyle. The program is no longer offered through OPHEA and has been adopted by a number of organizations (such as the YWCA) to continue offering the program through after school and community-based settings.

Girls Incorporated Girls Incorporated is a program that was initially developed in the United States but has been successfully adapted and implemented in communities in Ontario and in Northern Alberta. It offers a range of girl-specific programming including economic literacy, Operation SMART (fostering interest in science and technology), pregnancy prevention, Project BOLD (strategies and skills for violence prevention), media literacy, Friendly PEERsuasion (empowerment-based substance use prevention), and one-to-one mentoring. The programming is based on the premise that girls are dealing with issues unique to them, and that programming designed specifically to meet their needs can play a critical role in their healthy development into adults. The overall goal is to do more for girls that will strengthen them today and prepare them for critical roles tomorrow. All of the programs are based on clear curricula and objectives and to be an official Girls Inc. chapter, there is a significant amount of training and orientation to the specific programs. In Canada, some of the organizations offer community-based programming and others have partnered with schools to deliver services in an after-school format. As a Girls Inc. chapter, member organizations can access a large number of online resources and receive support from the National body (in the U.S.)

Success Factors for Go Girls and Girls Incorporated
  • Curriculum tied to girls interests and concerns
  • Positive mentoring relationships
  • Specific strategies to recruit marginalized girls
  • A "girls only" space has been found to increase participant comfort and engagement
  • Combination of social skills, economic literacy, media literacy and mentoring approaches

Uniting Our Nations: Peer Mentoring for Aboriginal Youth
The Uniting Our Nations Peer Mentoring program is a lunchtime program that supports the development of healthy and positive relationships between younger secondary students and peer mentors from senior grades. Aboriginal mentors are selected on the basis of being positive role models who have made a strong commitment to school. Groups of students meet on a weekly basis during lunch time and engage in a range of activities together, sometimes with a cultural focus, and sometimes not. The link with older students who have made a strong commitment to school helps smooth the transition from elementary to secondary school for the younger individuals, and provides them with important role models.
A unique aspect of the Uniting Our Nations Peer Mentoring program is the involvement of an adult mentor from the local Aboriginal community who comes into the school several times per semester, typically to facilitate a teaching circle with the mentoring participants. This community mentor helps provide support to the school mentors, incorporates cultural teachings into the program, serves as a role model, and provides the opportunity for the youth to become connected to another healthy adult in their community. Furthermore, the inclusion of a community mentor shifts some ownership and responsibility of the program to the community. Prior to beginning the program, all mentors receive a full day of training on the role and responsibilities of mentoring, and gain important role play experience to prepare them. Each mentor receives a manual, which serves as a resource to them both during training and throughout the program.

Success factors for Uniting our Nations Peer Program
  • Specific training manual and program to prepare senior students for mentoring role
  • Three-tiered program that incorporated community mentors who serve as role models, resource people and a healthy adult to connect with during the program
  • Adaptation of the program to serve as a for-credit course for mentoring without the same challenges as other extra-mural programs
  • Development of an implementation manual in addition to the mentoring manual to faciliate the use of the program by other communities
  • Flexibility of each school to emphasize group activities that solve problems related to absenteeism and being able to facilitate having more metees than mentors if the interest exists

Summary
In summary, although there has been limited research drawing direct links between after-school programming and reduced substance use, there is a strong theoretical case to be made for after-school programming as one component of a comprehensive substance abuse prevention strategy. In addition, there is evidence that these programs can build protective assets, through meaningful relationships with adults, improved peer relations, and increased competence (social skills, leadership skills, and other mastery). There is nothing magical about these programs, and indeed, many youth encounter these opportunities in their everyday lives. However, other youth do not have these same opportunities. For vulnerable youth who may not have access to these resources, after-school programming can play a critical role in leveling the playing field. In considering approaches to after-school programming, it is imperative to realize that planning, resources, and thoughtful selection and implementation of programs are required to ensure that they are more than childcare or a safe place for youth to be. The type of social-emotional learning opportunities and positive connections to adults that are most beneficial to vulnerable youth do not happen unintentionally. In reviewing successful programs, a number of lessons can be identified. These key lessons are described in Appendix A. With the requisite planning and support, these programs have the potential to be an important component of our substance use prevention strategy.

APPENDIX A

Lesson 1 Community school partnerships are critical
  • successful programs emerge from partnerships
  • partnerships involve different types of contributions - funding, expertise, time, etc
Lesson 2 After school programming needs to be paret of a comprehensive approach
  • after school programs can augment school and family-based opportunities for developing competence and other factors that lead to resilience
  • there is nothing in the research literature toi suggest that after=school programs can be a stand-alone strategy to promote healthy development or resilience
Lesson 3 Successful programs have a balance between structure and flexibility
  • they have manuals that articulate values, policies, procedures, and sample activities
  • at the same time, programs adapt to local circumstances
  • there is a balance to be attained between achieving the stated goals of the program and responding to local needs
Lesson 4 Successful programs offer a range of ways for youth to be involved
  • they provide a number of entry points for youth who are ambivalent about making a larger committment, recognizing that engagement is a process that may take time
Lesson 5 Successful programs tailor engagement strategies and profgramming to meet the needs of specific groups
  • they recognize that there may be groups of youth who could especially benefit but who may be unlikely to self-select (depending on the activity, this can include girls, aboriginal youth and others
  • they respond by identifying and addressing specific barriers to participation for these groups
  • solutions may fall outside the scope of normal programming and focus more on retention and support to stay involved
Lesson 6 Successful programs offer youth an opportunity to participate as leaders and not only as participants
  • they have clearly defined policies and procedures to support youth in leadership roles within the program or organization while providing the support necessary to ensure that their leadership activity is successful
Lesson 7 Successful prgrams offer a range of activities including mentoring, skill development and leadership
  • They use a range of strategies and activities to benefit a wide range of youth


APPENDIX B: Key Research Reports and Links Mentoring:Child
Trends offers research and reports addressing Mentoring. The first report listed below provides an overview of research findings across a range of mentoring programs. There is both a short and long version available on the Child Trends website. The second report provides a practical set of strategies for identifying and recruiting mentors (which is often the limiting factor in mentoring programs).

Mentoring:

Youth Engagement:

Girl-Specific Programming:

  • The Canadian Women’s Foundation commissioned an excellent report in 2006 called Girls in Canada, which reviews the existing literature that documents some of the challenges facing girls as they approach adolescents. This report provides a rationale for girl-specific programming and guidelines for effective programming and is available at http://www.cdnwomen.org/PDFs/EN/CWF-GirlsCanada-Report05.pdf

Working with Aboriginal Youth

  • Working with Aboriginal youth requires a comprehensive approach that meets the unique strengths and needs of these youth. The following toolkit provides a set of principles for working with youth, namely integrating cultural identity, increasing youth engagement, fostering youth empowerment, and developing and maintaining effective partnerships. It has 120 pages of practical strategies for youth programming, working with schools, and conducting research. Crooks, C. V., Chiodo, D., & Thomas, D. (2009). Engaging and empowering Aboriginal youth: A toolkit for service providers. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford. Available May 2009 at www.youthrelationships.org.
References

Calhoun Research and Development and C. Lang Consulting (2005). Girls in Canada 2005. Report prepared for the Canadian Women’s Foundation. Available at: http://www.cdnwomen.org/PDFs/EN/CWF-GirlsCanada-Report05.pdf.

Centre of Excellence of Youth Engagement (2007). What is Youth Engagement? Available online: http://www.engagementcentre.ca/files/Whatis_WEB_e.pdf

Crooks, C. V., Chiodo, D., & Thomas, D. (2009). Engaging and empowering Aboriginal youth: A toolkit for service providers. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford.

Depauw, L., & Glass, J. (2008). The need for a gender-sensitive approach to the mental health of young Canadians. Girls Action Foundation. Available at: http://www.powercampnational.ca/files/Mental%20Health%20Paper%20Final_0.pdf.

Hawkins, S. R., Graham, P. W., Williams, J., & Zahn, M. A. (2009). Resilient girls: Factors that protect against delinquency. U.S. Department of Justice, Girls Study Group. Available online at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ojjdp.

Jekielek, S.M., et al. (2002). Mentoring: A Promising Strategy for Youth Development. Child Trends.

Komro et al. (1996). Peer-planned social activities for preventing alcohol use among young adolescents. Journal of School Health, 66(9), 328-34

Pridemore, W. A. (2004). Review of the literature on risk and protective factors of offending among Native Americans. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 2(4), 45-63.

St. Pierre et al. (1997). Involving parents of high-risk youth in drug prevention: A three-year longitudinal study in Boys & Girls Clubs. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 17(1), 21-50





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